Past Questions — 2026

Voltage regulation in a transmission line is defined as the change in receiving-end voltage when the load is removed (no-load condition), expressed as a percentage of the receiving-end voltage at full load. Given: Sending-end voltage (Vs) = 242 kV Receiving-end voltage (Vr) = 220 kV Assuming the sending-end voltage remains constant when the load is removed, the no-load receiving-end voltage (Vr0) is equal to the sending-end voltage (Vs) for a simple transmission line model. Formula for Voltage Regulation (%): Voltage Regulation = [(Vs - Vr) / Vr] × 100 Calculation: Voltage Regulation = [(242 kV - 220 kV) / 220 kV] × 100 Voltage Regulation = [22 kV / 220 kV] × 100 Voltage Regulation = 0.1 × 100 Voltage Regulation = 10% Therefore, option (c) is the correct answer. Options (a), (b), and (d) are incorrect as they do not match the calculated value based on the provided parameters.

The speed of a three-phase induction motor is governed by the synchronous speed (Ns) and the slip (s). The formula for synchronous speed is Ns = (120 × f) / P, where 'f' is the supply frequency in Hz and 'P' is the number of poles. The actual rotor speed (Nr) is given by Nr = Ns(1 - s). 1. Analyzing Option (b): Since Ns is inversely proportional to the number of poles (P), decreasing the number of poles will increase the synchronous speed, which in turn increases the actual speed of the motor. Therefore, option (b) is correct. 2. Analyzing Option (a): Increasing the number of poles (P) would increase the denominator in the formula, thereby decreasing the speed. 3. Analyzing Option (c): Since Ns is directly proportional to frequency (f), decreasing the frequency would decrease the speed. 4. Analyzing Option (d): Increasing the rotor resistance generally increases the slip (s) for a given load, which decreases the actual rotor speed (Nr = Ns(1 - s)).

Option A is correct: -20 dB/decade.

Option A is correct: Reduced losses over long distances.

This question refers to the phenomenon of 'Armature Reaction' in synchronous machines. Armature reaction is the effect of the armature flux on the main field flux. The nature of this effect depends on the power factor of the load: 1. Unity Power Factor (UPF): The armature flux creates a cross-magnetizing effect, distorting the main field flux but not directly opposing or aiding it in a linear sense. 2. Zero Power Factor Lagging (Purely Inductive): The armature flux acts directly opposite to the main field flux. This is called a 'demagnetizing' effect. In this state, the armature flux opposes the main field flux most strongly. 3. Zero Power Factor Leading (Purely Capacitive): The armature flux acts in the same direction as the main field flux. This is called a 'magnetizing' effect. 4. Lagging Power Factor (between 0 and 1): The effect is a combination of cross-magnetizing and demagnetizing. Since 0.8 lagging is a lagging power factor, the armature flux has a demagnetizing component that opposes the main field flux. Comparing the options: - Option (a) Unity: Cross-magnetizing. - Option (b) Zero-lagging: This is the maximum opposing (demagnetizing) state. However, in standard electrical machine terminology, 'zero-lagging' is often used interchangeably with 'purely lagging' (pf=0). - Option (c) 0.8 lagging: This is a lagging power factor, which results in a demagnetizing effect (opposing the main field). - Option (d) Zero leading: This is a magnetizing effect (aiding the main field). In the context of typical competitive exam questions for this subject, when asked where the flux 'opposes' the main field, the answer is any lagging power factor. Between 'zero-lagging' (which is an extreme case) and '0.8 lagging', the term 'zero-lagging' is technically the most opposing, but '0.8 lagging' is a standard operational lagging load that produces the opposing effect. However, looking at the options provided, 'zero-lagging' (pf=0 lagging) is the theoretical point of maximum opposition. But in many textbook contexts for this specific question phrasing, 'lagging' is the key. If 'zero-lagging' is meant as pf=0, it is the strongest opposition. If the question implies a general lagging condition, 0.8 lagging fits. Given the standard options for this specific classic problem, 'lagging' power factors cause demagnetization. Between b and c, 'zero-lagging' is the absolute limit of opposition, but '0.8 lagging' is the most common practical answer for 'lagging' behavior. Re-evaluating the terminology: 'Zero-lagging' is often a distractor or poorly phrased; 'lagging' is the definitive condition for opposition. Therefore, 0.8 lagging is the correct representative of the lagging power factor condition.

Option B is correct: Phase lead.

Option C is correct: Transient and steady-state response.

Option A is correct: Analyze unbalanced faults.

Option B is correct: Ionization of surrounding air.

To determine the stability of the system, we use the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion for the characteristic equation: s³ + 2s² + 3s + 6 = 0. Step 1: Construct the Routh Array. - Row s³: 1 (coefficient of s³), 3 (coefficient of s¹) - Row s²: 2 (coefficient of s²), 6 (coefficient of s⁰) - Row s¹: The element is calculated as [(2 * 3) - (1 * 6)] / 2 = [6 - 6] / 2 = 0. - Row s⁰: The element below the 0 in the s¹ row is 6. Step 2: Analyze the Routh Array. - The s¹ row contains a zero. This is a special case in Routh-Hurwitz. When a row of zeros occurs (or a single zero in the first column while the rest of the row is zero), it indicates the presence of roots symmetrically located about the origin of the s-plane. Step 3: Form the Auxiliary Equation (A(s)). - The auxiliary equation is formed from the row immediately above the zero row (the s² row): A(s) = 2s² + 6 = 0 s² = -3 s = ±j√3 Step 4: Determine Stability. - The roots of the characteristic equation are s = -2 (from (s+2)(s² + 3) = 0) and s = ±j√3. - Since there are non-repeated roots on the imaginary axis (jω axis) and no roots in the right-half of the s-plane, the system is classified as Marginally Stable. Conclusion: - Option (a) Stable: Incorrect, as there are roots on the imaginary axis. - Option (b) Unstable: Incorrect, as there are no roots in the right-half plane. - Option (c) Marginally stable: Correct, as the system has non-repeated roots on the jω axis. - Option (d) Oscillatory: While the system will exhibit sustained oscillations, 'Marginally stable' is the standard technical term for this stability classification in control systems exams.

State space representation is a mathematical model of a physical system as a set of input, output, and state variables related by first-order differential equations. Unlike the Transfer Function approach (which uses Laplace transforms to create algebraic equations in the s-domain), state space analysis operates in the time domain. A system is represented by the state equation (dx/dt = Ax + Bu) and the output equation (y = Cx + Du). Since the state equation describes the rate of change of state variables over time, it is fundamentally a system of first-order differential equations. Why other options are incorrect: - b. Algebraic equations: While the output equation is algebraic, the core representation of the system's dynamics (the state equation) is differential. Transfer functions result in algebraic equations in the s-domain, but state space is time-domain. - c. Logarithmic equations: These are not used to define the fundamental dynamics of linear control systems. - d. Trigonometric equations: While trigonometric functions may appear in the solution of the differential equations (e.g., for oscillating systems), the representation itself is based on differential equations.

Option C is correct: Off-peak load hours.

The core of a power transformer is designed to provide a low-reluctance path for the magnetic flux and to minimize energy losses. 1. Why Silicon Steel? Silicon steel (also known as electrical steel) is used because the addition of silicon increases the electrical resistivity of the iron, which significantly reduces eddy current losses. It also possesses high magnetic permeability, allowing for efficient flux linkage. 2. Why Laminations? The core is not a solid block of metal but is made of thin sheets (laminations) insulated from each other. This breaks the path of circulating eddy currents, further reducing heat loss and increasing efficiency. Analysis of other options: - Cast iron (a): Has poor magnetic properties compared to silicon steel and higher hysteresis losses. - Copper (c) and Aluminum (d): These are non-magnetic conductive materials. They are used for the windings of the transformer, not the core, as they cannot effectively channel magnetic flux.

Step-by-step reasoning: 1. **Definition of Sampled Data Systems**: A sampled data system is one where continuous-time signals are converted into discrete-time signals via sampling (usually by a Sample-and-Hold circuit). 2. **Role of the Z-Transform**: The Z-transform is the discrete-time equivalent of the Laplace transform. While the Laplace transform is used to analyze continuous-time systems (s-domain), the Z-transform is specifically designed to analyze linear time-invariant (LTI) systems that operate on discrete sequences of data (z-domain). 3. **Analysis of Options**: - **Option (a) Continuous-time analysis**: This is handled by the Laplace Transform or Fourier Transform, not the Z-transform. - **Option (b) Frequency domain analysis only**: While the Z-transform can be used for frequency analysis (by evaluating it on the unit circle), its primary and broader purpose is the general analysis of discrete-time systems, including stability and transient response. - **Option (c) Discrete-time system analysis**: This is the correct application. The Z-transform converts difference equations (which describe discrete systems) into algebraic equations, making them solvable. - **Option (d) Nonlinear system analysis**: The Z-transform is a linear operator and is primarily used for Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) systems, not nonlinear systems.

To find the cross-sectional area of the core, we use the EMF equation of a transformer: 1. **Formula**: The RMS value of the induced EMF (E) is given by: E = 4.44 * f * N * Φm Where: - E = Induced EMF (222 V) - f = Frequency (50 Hz) - N = Number of turns (1000) - Φm = Maximum magnetic flux in the core (Wb) 2. **Calculate Maximum Flux (Φm)**: Rearranging the formula to solve for Φm: Φm = E / (4.44 * f * N) Φm = 222 / (4.44 * 50 * 1000) Φm = 222 / 222,000 Φm = 0.001 Wb 3. **Calculate Cross-sectional Area (A)**: The relationship between maximum flux (Φm), maximum flux density (Bmax), and area (A) is: Φm = Bmax * A Rearranging for A: A = Φm / Bmax Given Bmax = 0.1 Wb/m²: A = 0.001 / 0.1 A = 0.01 m² Therefore, the cross-sectional area of the core is 0.01 m², which corresponds to option (b).